UN+Peacekeepers

United Nations Peacekeeper (Blue Helmets)

Where do troops come from? -As of March 2008, 113 countries were contributing a total 88,862 military observers, police, and troops. -Despite the large number of contributors, the greatest burden continues to be borne by a core group of developing countries, who often profit financially from their participation in such missions. The 10 main troop-contributing countries to UN peacekeeping operations as of March 2007 were Pakistan (10,173), Bangladesh (9,675), India (9,471), Nepal (3,626), Jordan (3,564), Uruguay (2,583), Italy (2,539), Ghana (2,907), Nigeria (2,465), and France (1,975). -Developing nations tend to participate in peacekeeping more than developed countries. This may be due in part because forces from smaller countries avoid evoking thoughts of imperialism.

What can they do? -Peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist ex-combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. -Peacekeeping is anything that contributes to the furthering of a peace process, once established. This includes, but is not limited to, the monitoring of withdrawal by combatants from a former conflict area, the supervision of elections, and the provision of reconstruction aid. Peacekeepers are often soldiers, but they do not have to be. Similarly, while soldier-peacekeepers are sometimes armed, they do not have to engage in combat.

When are they effective? -UN Peacekeeper are effective at facilitating the peace process. They are Peacekeepers, not Peace makers. The UN does not wish to send in the middle of a war torn nation(s) to end a conflict as the world police, instead going in after a ceasefire has been reached and helping decrease tensions, keep all sides of the conflict talking and not fighting, settling minor disputes, and give humanitarian aid. Ongoing successful operations are: Morocco/Western Sahara, Liberia, Second Sudanese Civil War, and East Timor.

Pros -In response to criticism, particularly of the cases of sexual abuse by peacekeepers, the UN has taken steps toward reforming its operations. The Brahimi Report was the first of many steps to recap former peacekeeping missions, isolate flaws, and take steps to patch these mistakes to ensure the efficiency of future peacekeeping missions. The UN has vowed to continue to put these practices into effect when performing peacekeeping operations in the future.

Cons A comparison of incidents involving UN peacekeepers, troops, and employees.

Conflict Sexual Abuse Murder Extortion/Theft Second Congo War 150 3 44 Somali Civil War 5 24 5 Sierra Leone Civil War 50 7 15 Eritrean-Ethiopian War 70 15 ? Burundi Civil War 80 5 ? Rwanda Civil War 65 15 ? Liberian Civil War 30 4 1 Second Sudanese Civil War 400 5 ? Cote d’Ivoire Civil War 500 2 ? 2004 Haiti Rebellion 110 57 ? Kosovo War 800 70 100 Israeli-Lebanese Conflict ? 6 ?

UN Peacekeeping Missions COMPLETED

Africa Congo Crisis, Congo (1960-1964): -Established to ensure the withdrawal of Belgian forces, to assist the Government in maintaining law and order and to provide technical assistance. The function was subsequently modified to include maintaining the territorial integrity and political independence of the Congo, preventing the occurrence of civil war and securing the removal of all foreign military, paramilitary and advisory personnel not under the UN command, and all mercenaries. Angolan Civil War, Angola (1988-1999): - Namibian War of Independence, Namibia (1989-1990): -Established to assist the Special Representative of the Secretary-General to ensure the early independence of Namibia through free and fair elections under the supervision and control of the UN, and to carry out a number of other duties. Independent Namibia joined the UN in April 1990. SUCCESS Mozambican Civil War, Mozambique (1992-1994): -Established to help implement the General Peace Agreement, signed by the President of the Republic of Mozambique and the President of the Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana. The mandate included facilitating the implementation of the Agreement, monitoring the ceasefire; monitoring the withdrawal of foreign forces and providing security in the transport corridors; providing technical assistance and monitoring the entire electoral process. Somali Civil War, Somalia (1992-1995): -Established to monitor the ceasefire in Mogadishu and escort deliveries of humanitarian supplies to distribution centres in the city. Mission’s mandate and strength were later enlarged to enable it to protect humanitarian convoys and distribution centres throughout Somalia. First Liberian Civil War, Liberia (1993-1997): -Established to exercise food offices in support of the efforts of the Economic Community of West African States and the Liberian National Transitional Government to implement peace agreements; investigate alleged ceasefire violations; assist in maintenance of assembly sites and demobilization of combatants; support humanitarian assistance; investigate human rights violations and assist local human rights groups; observe and verify elections. Rwandan Civil War, Rwanda &Uganda (1993-1994): -Established to monitor the border between Uganda and Rwanda and verify that no military assistance was being provided across it. While the tragic turn of events in Twanda in 1994 prevented peacekeepers from fully implementing its mandate, the mission played a useful role as a confidence-building mechanism. Rwandan Civil War, Rwanda (1993-1996): -Established to help implement the Arusha Peace Agreement signed by the Rwandese parties. The mandate and strength were adjusted on a number of occasions in the face of the tragic events of the genocide and the changing situation in the country. Aouzou Strip dispute, Chad & Libya (1994): -Established to verify the withdrawal of the Libyan administration and forces from the Aouzou Strip in accordance with the decision of the International Court of Justice. The group accomplished its mandate after both sides declared withdrawal to be complete. SUCCESS Sierra Leone Civil War, Sierra Leone (1998-2005): -Established to monitor the military and security situation in Sierra Leone, as well as the disarmament and demobilization of former combatants. It was also asked to assist in monitoring respect for international humanitarian law. -Completed its mandate in 2005. It was succeeded by a new mission, established by the Security Council to help consolidate peace in the country. Central African Republic mutinies, Central African Republic (1998-2000): -Assist in maintaining and enhancing security and stability in Bangui and vicinity; supervise, control storage, and monitor the disposition of weapons retrieved in disarmament exercise; assist in capacity-building of national police; provide advice and technical support for legislative elections. Eritrean-Ethiopian War, Eritrea & Ethoipia (2000-2008): -In 2000, UN Peacekeepers entered the situation after the two nations signed a cessation of hostilities over the two year border dispute. -In 2008, the Security Council terminated its mandate in response to crippling restrictions imposed by Eritrea, as well as the cutting off of fuel supplies, making it impossible for the operation to continue carrying out its mandated tasks and putting UN personnel at risk. FAIL Burundi Civil War, Burundi (2004-2007): -Having determined that the situation in Burundi continued to constitute a threat to international peace and security in the region, the security council decided to establish a Peacekeeping force in order to support and help to implement the efforts undertaken by Burundians to restore lasting peace and bring about national reconciliation, as provided by the Arusha Agreement. -The operation was successfully completed at the end of 2006. SUCCESS

Americas Operation Power Pack, Dominican Republic (1965-1966): Nicaraguan Civil War, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, & Nicaragua (1989-1992): -Established in 1989 to verify compliance by the Central American Governments with their undertakings to cease aid to irregular forces and insurrectionist movements in the region and not to allow their territory to be used for attacks on other States. In addition, peacekeepers played a part in the voluntary demobilization of the Nicaraguan Resistance and monitored a ceasefire and the seperation of forces agreed by the Nicaraguan parties as part of the demobilization process. El Salvador Civil War, El Salvador (1991-1995): 1991 coup and Military rule in Haiti, Haiti (1993-1996): Stabilizing Haiti’s new democracy, Haiti (1996-1997): Guatemalan Civil War, Guatemala (1997): Training of the Haitian National Police, Haiti (1997-2001):

Asia Indonesian takeover of West New Guinea, Republic of West Papua, Netherlands, Indonesia (1962-1963): Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India, Pakistan (1965-1966): Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, Afghanistan, &Pakistan (1988-1990): Vietnamese Occupation of Cambodia, Cambodia (1991-1993): Tajikistan Civil War, Tajikistan (1994-2000): Indonesian Invasion and Occupation, East Timor & Indonesia (1999-2002): Indonesian Invasion and Occupation, East Timor (2002-2005):

Europe Yugoslav Wars, Former Yugoslavia; Bosnia, Herzegovina, Croatia, Republic of Macedonia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1992-1995): Abkhazian War, Georgia (1993-2009): Croatian War, Croatia (1994-1996): Bosnian War, Bosnia & Herzegovina (1995-2002): Aftermath of the Yugoslav Wars, Republic of Macedonia (1995-1999): Croatian War, Croatia (1996-1998): Prevlaka Territorial Dispute, Prevlaka Peninsula (1996-2002): Croatian War, Croatia (1998):

Middle East Suez Crisis, Six-Day War, Egypt & Israel (1956-1967): Lebanon Crisis of 1958, Lebanon (1958): Yemen Civil War, Yemen (1963-1964): Yom Kippur War, Egypt & Israel (1973-1979): Iran-Iraq War, Iran & Iraq (1988-1991): Gulf War, Iraq & Kuwait (1991-2003):

UN Peacekeeping Missions ONGOING

Africa Moroccan Occupation of Western Sahara, Western Sahara (1991-): Background: Spain promised Western Sahara independence when it was decolonizing it, but pressure from Morocco and the U.S. forced the Spanish government to capitulate. Morocco invaded and conquered the majority of the territory and the U.S. blocked the 1975 UN Security Council resolution demanding Morocco’s withdrawal. Currently: Most of the indigenous Western Saharan population (Sahrawis) have been exiled in refugee camps in neighboring Algeria. A ceasefire was reached in 1991 and the UN came in with a mandate of providing a transitional period for the preparations of a referendum in which the people of Western Sahara would choose between independence and integration with Morocco. Success: Drastic decrease in tensions and violent conflict. Morocco cooperating with UN, and dealing with war criminals and human rights abuses. Failure: No referendum has been reached, Western Sahara is still occupied, and its population is still in refugee camps. Second Congo War, Democratic Republic of Congo, formerly Zaire (1999-): Background: Largest interstate war in Africa’s history involving 9 countries. After the Cold War, the superpowers withdrew from sub-Saharan Africa, leaving nations to deal with the after effects of the conflict between the superpowers and colonialism, as well as internal conflicts between local groups. Ugandan and Rwandan armies began to invade, as well Hutu refugees fleeing from the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, where militias began to form. In 1998, Kabila ordered all Rwandan and Ugandan military forces out of the country. Conflict moved to mostly eastern part of country. Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Chad, Libya got in on the fighting for the mineral rich eastern Congo. The current UN peacekeepers are following the signing of the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement between DRC and five regional states, for the supervision and implementation of the Ceasefire agreement and assigned multiple related additional tasks. Currently: 1000 people die a day from either fighting, disease, or other effects of the conflict, as well as resource trafficking continues. Success: Slightly more contained in area than before. Failure: The conflict continues on a smaller scale in the eastern part of the country. Second Liberian Civil War, Liberia (2003-): Background: During the ceasefire, elections were held and a leader elected. Country was relatively quiet, until 1999 with disturbances hit the largest refugee areas (from both Sierra Leone and Liberia) creating insurgencies. Violence escalated in 2001 against the government. Militias began to recruit forcibly underage soldiers. Over 300,000 people were fleeing for their lives to other areas of the country, or in the neighboring five countries. An international peacekeeping force was asked in to help with the conflict in 2003. The UN negotiated a ceasefire, however when President Taylor (who was wanted for war crimes for his military actions in Sierra Leone) announced he was staying in office, violence began again. Currently: The political situation has remained stable ever since the 2005 elections that saw the first of Africa’s democratically elected president. The UN mandate of supporting the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and the peace process; protection of UN staff, facilities and civilians; supporting humanitarian and human rights activities; and assisting in national security reform including national police training and formation of a new restructured military. The UN is now beginning a gradual drawdown of troops in May 2010. Success: Stabilized and successful government, increased quality of life for citizens, and end of violence. Failure: Can’t think of anything. Civil War in Cote d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Cote d’Ivoire(Ivory Coast) (2004-): Background: Before 1999, was known for its religious and ethnic harmony and its well-developed economy, then a coup toppled the government. Violence and xenophobia erupted. Fighting between the government and the rebel factions have continues with numerous ceasefires, all having been broken after short periods. UN and French forces created a buffer zone to calm tensions between the rebel held north and government held south. Currently: Starting in 2007, the buffer zone has been dismantling and rebel forces have been integrating into the national forces. Disarmament and demobilization are still problematic. Election fraud around the nation has civil war about to re-erupt. The UN mandate is a political mission set up by the Council to facilitate the implementation by the Ivorian parties of the peace agreement signed by them in January 2003. Success: Somewhat successful peace deal and the slow integration of north and south, and no full scale conflict has been re-launched. Failure: Still hundreds of thousands of displaced Ivorians. Huge issues of trafficking women and children. Second Sudanese Civil War, Sudan (2005-): Background: The North and South of Sudan have been involved in two civil wars. These conflicts were rooted in Northern economic, political, and social domination of the largely non-Muslim, non-Arab Southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in 1972, but broke out again in 1983. The war continued for two decades until the North/South Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), signed January 2005, granted the southern rebels autonomy for six years. After which, a referendum for independence is schedule to be held in January 2011. Currently: Issues with election fraud, voter registration, and accusations of fixed elections have been increasing tensions with the upcoming Presidential elections. These elections will set the stage with local and overall leaders for the independence referendum. The UN’s mandate is to support the implementation of the CPA, and to perform certain functions relating to humanitarian assistance, and protection and promotions of human rights. Presidential elections are scheduled for April 11-18th 2010. This will be the first vote in 24 years. Success: Decreased tensions and violence with peaceful disputes between the North and South. The South is scheduled to vote on its independence in January 2011, and President Omar al-Bashir has vowed to honor whatever decision the South comes to. Failure: Elections fraud and rigged by the current administration has the South to afraid to oppose or protest the election because of the threat of the independence referendum being lost and reverting back to civil war. Darfur Conflict, Sudan (2007-): Background: Darfur is a large region in Sudan’s western area and borders mostly with Chad. Black African Muslims in Darfur launched a military campaign against the Arab Sudanese government in 2003. The response of the Sudanese government was the use of the Janjaweed militia, although the government denies this. Currently: UN has declared war crimes have been committed, but no genocidal intent. With AU, protection of civilians as its core mandate, as well as contributing to security for humanitarian assistance, monitoring and verifying implementation of agreements, assisting an inclusive political process, contributing to the promotion of human rights and the rule of law, and monitoring and reporting on the situation along the borders with Chad and the Central African Republic. Success: The “war” part of the conflict is over, and some tedious peace agreements have been signed. Failure: Thousands are still displaced inside and out of the country, small skirmishes still continue, and tensions could erupt back to war at any point. Darfur Conflict, War in Chad, Chad & Central African Republic (2007-): Background: Racial tensions between Black and Arabs have spilled into Chad and Central African Republic as people become angry at the Janjaweed militia, and take it out on their own local Arab communities. Currently: An international peacekeeping force was asked in to help act to end this conflict. The UN is there to contribute to the protection of civilians; promote human rights and the rule of law; and promote regional peace. The military component has been transferred over to the EU military force. France also has a separate peacekeeping force in Chad and the Central African Republic. Success: Failure: Violence still continues in the camps.

Americas 2004 Haiti Rebellion, Haiti (2004-): Background: Huge history of poverty, political violence, instability, and dictatorship. Police brutality and bloody conflicts are common. Currently: Original mandate was to restore a secure and stable environment, to promote the political process, to strengthen Haiti’s Government Institutions and rule-of-law-structures, as well as promote and to protect human rights. After the 2010 earthquake, mandate is now to support the immediate recovery, reconstruction and stability efforts in the country. Success: ? Failure: ?

Asia 2006 East Timor Crisis, East Timor (Timor-Leste) (2006-): Background: Was overtaken by Indonesia during WWII, and have suffered oppression and human rights abuses under their rule. In 1999, the people voted for self determination despite the Indonesian military-backed militia and its terror campaign. Much of East Timor was destroyed at some point, and the now official independent nation is working on recovering and rebuilding. In 2006, an uprising began and the UN was sent in to help restore order. Currently: In the wake of a major political, humanitarian and security crisis which erupted in Timor-Leste. The mandate is to support the Government in consolidating stability, enhancing a culture of democratic governance, and facilitating political dialogue among Timorese stakeholders, in their efforts to bring about a process of national reconciliation and to foster social cohesion. The UN has handed back formal control of the police back to Timor-Leste. Success: UN stepping back as lead controller of the situation and letting the nation step up. As of 2009, the economy showed drastic growth. Failure: UN still unable to leave and country relies on greatly.

Europe Cyprus Dispute, Cyprus (1964-): Background: Conflict between the Turkish Cypriots and the Greek Cypriots over the island country of Republic of Cyprus. Cyprus was then divided in 1974 in response to a coup. In 1983, The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus declared itself independent from the Republic of Cyprus, and was then condemned by the UN and only recognized by Turkey. Currently: Starting in 2002, a proposal of both states merging under one federal constitution has been revised five times with still no compromise. In the absence of a political settlement to the Cyprus problem, peacekeepers have remained on the island to supervise ceasefire lines, maintain a buffer zone, undertake humanitarian activities and support the good offices mission of the Secretary-General. This conflict has kept Turkey from joining the UN and EU. Success: The fighting has overall ended. Failure: Tensions are still high, and an agreement has still not been reached. Kosovo War, Kosovo & Serbia (1999-): Background: Formerly Yugoslavia, conflicted country for decades as autonomy and rights were given and taken from certain groups. Huge amounts of tension Currently: Established an international presence. As Kosovo’s government began to establish, UN has moved back from an executive role to one of monitoring and support to local institutions. Success: Failure:

Middle East Monitoring the various ceasefires and assists UNDOF and UNIFIL, Middle East (1948-): Monitor ceasefires, supervise armistice agreements, prevent isolated incidents from escalating and assist other UN peacekeeping operations in the region to fulfill their respective mandates. Agreed withdrawal by Syrian and Israeli forces following the Yom Kippur War, Israel, Lebanon, Syria (1974-): Maintain the ceasefire between the Israeli and Syrian forces and to supervise the implementation of the disengagement agreement. Israeli invasion of Lebanon and 2006 Israel-Lebanon Conflict, Lebanon (1978-): Original mandate was to confirm Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, restore international peace and security and assist the Lebanese Government in restoring its effective authority in the area. The mandate had to be adjusted twice, due to the developments in 1982 and 2000. Following the July/August 2006 crisis, the mandate expanded to monitor the cessation of hostilities; accompany and support the Lebanese armed forces as they deploy throughout the south of Lebanon; and extend its assistance to help ensure humanitarian access to civilian populations and the voluntary and safe return of displaced persons.